There comes a point in thediscussion when the evidence is so overwhelming that you have to say shut upalready. This is effectively real coldfusion (although that is a lousy name) and it is working as I originallysurmised on its first discovery. We areable to winkle a hydrogen atom past the coulomb barrier in order to upgrade anickel isotope into a copper isotope and release a lot of energy.
Let us get over the miracle part. It was always a proposition that appearedimpossible on the surface which is why few tried for the last century.
The next milestone will be aworking prototype using a large number of reactors which are been fabricatedright now in order to commence operations in October of this year. I assume that is a realistic target date,but we need not whine if the electricians are delayed setting it all up.
We are seeing here that anotherscientist is piling on and I think right now that most have been stunned intosilence. After all, the ultimate proof hasalways been a heat measurement and this device has answered that inspades. The original work showed amodest change that was dangerously close to the expected error level. This work is orders of magnitude beyond suchnonsense.
I have added the paper thatcontinues to refine the explanation and it looks like we will soon have thatpolished.
As I have been posting, while I wouldlove to see a direct fusion system actually work, and while we may get that tooinside the next two years, I am quite happy to take a heat engine thatinstantly make nuclear, coal, gas and oil completely obsolete. These reactors will have a low operating costand will drive those industries directly out of business. I also suspect that this will be done insidethe next decade.
As posted, we are now witnessingthe end of all previous energy production systems. Only dams and geothermal will remain competitiveand it will not be the first choice.
Rossi Provides More Answers about the Energy Catalyzer and Nasa'sDennis Bushnell lists it as the number one energy solution
JUNE 01, 2011
Three E-cats without insulation and one insulated. Text in blueindicates hydrogen inlet, main heater, auxiliary heater and water inlet. Foto:Giuseppe Levi
Rossi - Beta decay has nothing to do with my process, Widom Larsen theory hasnothing to do with my process.
Rossi has stated he now has an understanding of what exactly is takingplace in his device, and that "Widom Larsen" theory does not explainit.
Rossi - 1 gram of matter (Nickel) produces 23 million kWh of power. Rossi isdescribing the energy that is generated as thermal/heat and at a low gradetemperature. Converting to electricity would be at about 5% efficiency.
1 kg would produce 23 terawatt hours (heat)
100 kg would produce 2300 TWh
1 ton would produce 23,000 TWh
World production of electricity in 2008 was 20261 TWh.
In 2008, total worldwide energy consumption was 474 exajoules (474×10^18
J=132,000 TWh).
Rossi - Should all the energy of the world be made with this system, only the1% of the world production of Ni would be consumed.
Rossi did not reconcile and explain the twostatements of power generation per gram and nickel production. I have providedthe statistics and information about how the Rossi process is supposed to workto try to fill the gap.
Dennis Bushnell, Chief Scientist of NASA, was interviewed for an EV World podcast.
1. The most interesting and high potential alternative energy is low energynuclear reactions.
Bushnell thinks Rossi and cold fusion is low energy nuclear reactions via weaknuclear force. NASA started experiments in 2006 to investigate Widom Larsentheory and used quantum theory to guide and optimize their work.
LENR technology by itself could potentially solve all of our energy andclimate problems.
I think we are almost over the "we do not understand it" problem.I think we are almost over the "this does not produce anythinguseful" problem. I think this will go forward fairly rapidly now. If itdoes, this is capable of, by itself, completely changing geo-economics,geo-politics, and solving climate issues.
A detailed Qualitative Approach to the Cold Fusion Nuclear Reactions ofH/Ni
By prof. Christos Stremmenos
After several years of apparent inaction, the theme of cold fusion hasbeen recently revitalized thanks to, among others, the work and the scientificpublications of Focardi and Rossi, which has been conducted in silence, amidstironical disinterest, without any funding or support. In fact, recently,practical and reliable results have been achieved based on a very promisingapparatus invented by Andrea Rossi. Therefore I want to examine thepossibility of further development of this technology, which I deem reallyimportant for our planet.
Introduction
I will start with patent no./2009/125444, registered by Dr. Ing. Andrea Rossi.This invention and its performance have been tested and verified incollaboration with Prof. Sergio Focardi, as reported in their paper, publishedin February 2010 in the Journal of Nuclear Physics [1]. In that scientificpaper they have reported on the performance of an apparatus, which has producedfor two years substantial amounts of energy in a reliable and repeatable mode andthey have also offered a theoretical analysis for the interpretation of theunderlying physical mechanism.
In the history of Science, it is not the first time that a practicaland reliable apparatus is working before its theoretical foundation has been completelyunderstood! The photoelectric effect is the classic example in which theapplication has anticipated its full theoretical interpretation, developed byEinstein. Afterwards Einstein, Plank, Heisenberg, De Broglie, Schrödinger andothers formulated the principles of Quantum Mechanics. For theinteractive Nickel/Hydrogen system it would be now opportune to compile, in away easily understood by the non expert the relevant principles and conceptsfor the qualitative understanding of the phenomenon. Starting with the behaviorof electrically charged particles in vacuum, it is known that particles withopposite electric charge attract themselves and “fuse” producing anelectrically neutral particle, even though this does not always happen, as forinstance in the case of a hydrogen atom, where a proton and a electron althoughattract each other they do not “fuse”, for reasons that will be explainedlater. On the contrary, particles charged with electric charge of thesame sign always repel each other, and their repulsion tends to infinity whentheir distance tends to zero, which implies that in this case fusion is notpossible (classical physics).
On the contrary, according to Quantum mechanics, for a systemwith a great number of particles of the same electric charge (polarity)it is possible that a few of them will fuse, as for instance, according toFocardi-Rossi, in the case of Nickel nuclei in crystal structure andhydrogen nuclei (protons) diffused within it, Although of the same polarity, a very small percentage of these nuclei manage to come so close to eachother, at a distance of 10-14 m, where strong nuclear forces emerge and takeover the Coulomb forces and thus form the nucleus of a new element,either stable or unstable.
This mechanism, which is possible only in the atomic microcosm, ispredictable by a quantum-mechanics model of a particle put in a closed box. According to classical physics no one would expect to find a particle outof the box, but in quantum mechanics the probability of a particle to be foundout of the box is not zero! This is the so called “tunneling effect”, which forsystems with a very large number of particles, predicts that a small percentageof them lie outside the box, having penetrated the “impenetrable” walls and anyother present barrier through the “tunnel”! In our case, the barrier isnothing else but the electrostatic repulsion, to which the couples of hydrogenand nickel nuclei (of the same polarity) are subjected and is called Coulombbarrier.
Diffusion mechanism of hydrogen in nickel: Nickel as a catalyst first decomposes the biatomicmolecules of hydrogen to hydrogen atoms in contact with the nickel surface.Then these hydrogen atoms deposit their electrons to the conductivity band ofthe metal (Fermi band) and due to their greatly reduced volume, compared tothat of their atom, the hydrogen nuclei readily diffuse into the crystallinestructure of the nickel, including its defects. At this point, in order tounderstand the phenomenon it is necessary to briefly describe the structureboth of the nickel atom and the nickel crystal lattice.
It is well known that the nickel atom is not so simple as the hydrogenatom, as its nucleus consists of dozens of protons and neutrons, thus it ismuch heavier and exerts a proportionally higher electrostatic repulsion thanthe nucleus of hydrogen, which consists of only one proton. In this case, theelectrons, numerically equal to the protons, are ordered in various energylevels and cannot be easily removed from the atom to which they belong.Exception to this rule is the case of electrons of the chemical bonds, whichalong with the electrons of the hydrogen atoms form the metal conductivity band(electronic cloud), which moves quasi freely throughout the metal mass.
As in all transition metals, the nickel atoms in the solid state, andmore specifically their nuclei, are located at the vertices and at the centreof the six faces of the cubic cell of the metal, leaving a free internaloctahedral space within the cell, which, on account of the quasi negligiblevolume of the nuclei, is practically filled with electrons of the nickel atoms,as well as with conductivity electrons.
It would be really interesting to know the electrons’ specific density(number of electrons per unit volume) and its spatial distribution inside thisoctahedral space of the crystal lattice as a function of temperature.
Dynamics of the lattice vibration states
Another important aspect to take into consideration in this system is thedynamics of the lattice vibration states, in other words, the periodic threedimensional normal oscillations of the crystal lattice (phonons) of the nickel,which hosts hydrogen nuclei or nuclei of hydrogen isotopes (deuterium ortritium) that have entered into the above mentioned free space of the crystalcell.
It could be argued that the electrons’ specific density and its spatialdistribution in the internal space of the crystal structure should be coherentwith the natural frequencies of the lattice oscillations. This means that theperiodicity of the electronic cloud within the octahedral space of theelementary crystal cell of Nickel generates an oscillating strengthening ofshielding of the diffused nuclei of hydrogen or deuterium which also populatethis space.
I believe that these considerations can form the basis for aqualitative analysis of this “NEW SOURCE OF ENERGY” and the phenomenologyrelated to cold fusion, including energy production in much smaller quantitiesand various reaction products.
Shielding of protons by electrons
In the Focardi-Rossi paper the shielding of protons provided by electrons issuspected to be one of the main reasons of the effect, helping the capture ofprotons by the Ni nucleus, therefore generating energy by fusion ofprotons in Nickel and a series of exothermic nuclear reactions, leaving asby-product isotopes different from the original Ni (transmutations). Suchshielding is one of the elements contributing to the energetic efficiency ofthe system. From this derives the opportunity, I think, to focus uponthis shielding, both to increase its efficiency and to verify the hypothesiscontained in the paper of Focardi-Rossi. Of course, what we are talkingof here is a theoretical verification, because the practical verification is madeby monitoring the performance of the apparatus invented and patented by AndreaRossi, presently under rigorous verification by many independent universityresearchers.
In my opinion, the characteristics of the shielding of the proton fromthe electrons should be defined, as well as the “radiometric” behavior of thesystem.
In other words, the following two questions should be answered:
Which is the supposed mechanism that overcomes the powerfulelectrostatic repulse (Coulomb barrier) between the “shielded proton” and theNickel nucleus?
For what reason there is almost no radiation of any kind(experimental observation), while according to the Focardi and Rossi’shypothesis there should have been some γ radiation (511 KeV) produced by thepredicted annihilation of the β+ and β- particles that are being created duringthe Fusion?
I believe that some thoughts based on general and elementarystructures, data and principles of universal scientific acceptance, might shedsome light to this exciting phenomenon. More specific, I refer to Bohr’shydrogen atom, the speed of nuclear reactions (10-20 sec) and the UncertaintyPrinciple of Heisenberg.
I will take Bohr’s hydrogen atom as a starting point (figure 1a), whichstays at its fundamental state forever in the absence of externalperturbations, due to De Broglie’s wave, accompanying the sole electron.
As stated before, in contact with the metal, these atoms lose theirfundamental state, as their electrons are being transmitted to the conductivityband. These electrons, together with the “naked nuclei” of hydrogen(protons), form a freely moving cloud of charges (plasma at a degenerate state)inside the crystalline lattice. That cloud is being defused through the surfaceto the polycrystallic mass of the metal, covering empty spaces of thenon-canonical structure of the crystalline lattice, as well as the tetrahedraland octahedral spaces between the molecules. As a consequence, the crystallinestructure is covered by “delocalized plasma” (degenerate state), which is consistedby protons, electrons produced by the “absorbed atoms” of hydrogen, as well asby the electrons of the chemical valence of Nickel of the lattice, at differentenergy states (Fermi’s band). (Fig. 2) Fig.1b
In this system, if one considers the probability of the creation insidethe crystalline lattice of temporary (not at the fundamental state) “pseudo-atoms”of hydrogen with neutral charge, for example at a time of the order of 10ˆ-17sec, then that possibility is not completely ill-founded. (Fig 1b)
Fig.2
According to the Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg, thetemporary atoms of hydrogen will cover during that small time interval Δt,a wide range of energies ΔΕ, which means also a wide range of atomicdiameters of temporary atoms, satisfying the De Broglie’s condition. A percentage of them (at fist a very small one) might have diameterssmaller than 10ˆ-14 m, which is the maximum active radius of nuclearreactions. In that case, the chargeless temporary atoms, or mini-atoms, ofhydrogen together with high energy but short lived electrons, are beingstatistically trapped by the Nickel nuclei at a time of 10ˆ-20 sec. Inother words, the high speed of nuclear reactions permits the fusion of shortlived but neutral mini-atoms of hydrogen with the Nickel nuclei ofthe crystalline lattice, as during that short time interval the Coulombbarrier (of the specific hydrogen mini-atom) does not exist.
Afterwards, it follows a procedure similar to the one described byFocardi and Rossi, but instead of considering the capture of a shielded protonby the Ni58 nucleus, we adopt the hypothesis of trapping a neutraltemporary atom, or a mini atom, of hydrogen (with a diameter less than 10ˆ-14m) which transforms the Ni58 nucleus into Cu59 (copper/59,short lived isotope*).
It follows the predicted “β decay” of the nuclei of the short livedisotope of copper, accompanied by the emission of β+ (positrons)and β- (perhapsthe electrons of the mini atoms trapped inside that nucleus during the fusion).These particles are being annihilated with an emission of γ radiation(two photons of γ of energy 511 KeV each, for every couple of β+ and β-).
In other words, whoever has experimented with this system should havesuffered the not-so-harmless influence of those radiations, but that neverhappened. The radioactivity measured at the experiments is almost zeroand easily shielded.
In any case, a rigorous, in my opinion, theoretical approach for theinterpretation of that phenomenon with quantum mechanical terms, would giveclear quantitative answers to the above stated models. With my Colleges oftheoretical chemistry, we are already planning to face the problem using thetime-depended quantum mechanical perturbation theory, bearing in mind thefollowing:
The total wave function (of the nucleus and the electrons) oftemporarily, non-stable states.
The total time-depended Hamiltonian, for temporarily states.
Searching for the resonance conditions at that system.
Such an approach had a successful outcome at a similar problem oftheoretical chemistry and we hope that it will be valid in this case as well.
Let’s go back to the intuitive, with ideal models, approach, in orderto give a qualitative explanation for the (almost) absent radiations of thesystem, by using:
First of all the Boltzmann’s distribution (especially at theasymptotic area of high energies).
The photoelectric effect
The Compton effect
The Mössbauer effect
We have already mentioned that from the temporary mini atoms ofhydrogen, the ones with diameter less than 10ˆ-14 m, have a largerprobability of fusion. But, in order for them to be created, high energy bondelectrons should exist at the “delocalized plasma” of the crystalline lattice.
1. Boltzmann’s statistics:
There are reasons to believe that the H/Ni system, at first at temperatures ofabout 400-500oC, contains a very small percentage of electrons in the“delocalized plasma” with enough energy to create (together with the diffusedprotons), according to the wave-particle duality principle, the first temporarymini atoms of hydrogen, that will trigger the fusion with the nickel nuclei andthe production ofhigh energy γ photons (511 KeV).
2. Photoelectric Effect:
It is not possible, the HUGE amount of energy (in kW/h), that the Rossi/Focardireactor produces, as measured by unrelated scientists in repeateddemonstrations (at one of them by the writer and his colleagues, Fig 3), to becreated due to the thermalization of the insignificant number of γ photons at the beginning of the reaction.
Fig.3
I believe that, as stated above, these photons are the trigger offusion at a multiplicative series, based on the photoelectric effectinsidethe crystalline structure.
The two γ photons can export symmetrically (180°) twoelectrons from the nearest Nickel atoms. The stimulation, due to the highenergy of γ, concerns electrons of internal bands of two different atoms of thelattice and has as a prerequisite the absorption of all the energy of thephoton. A small part of that energy is being consumed for the export ofthe electron from the atom and the rest is being transformed into kineticenergy of the electron (thermal energy).
The result of that procedure is to enrich the “delocalized plasma” withhigh energy electrons that will contribute multiplicatively (by a factor oftwo) at the progress of the cold fusion nuclear reactions of hydrogen andnickel and at the same time transform the hazardous γ radiation into usefulthermal energy.
3. The ComptonScattering:
It gives the additional possibility of multiplication, this time due tosecondary photons γ, in a wide range of frequencies, as a function of theangular deviation from the direction of the initial photon of 511 keV.That has as a result the increase of the export of electrons, due to thephotoelectric phenomenon at the crystalline mass, in many energy/kineticlevels, which gives an additional possibility of converting the γ radiationinto useful thermal energy.
4. The Mössbauer effect:
It gives another possible way of absorbing the γ radiation and transforming itinto thermal energy. It is based on the principle of conservation of momentumat the regression of the new Cu59 nucleus/ from the emission of a γphoton. Relative calculations (Dufour) showed that this mechanism has aninsignificant (1%) contribution.
It follows that, according to given data, the Photoelectric phenomenonand the Compton Effect, could explain the absence of radiations in theFocardi-Rossi system, which, from the amount of producing energy versus theconsumption of Ni and H2, as well as from the experimental observation ofelement transformations, lead undoubtedly to the acceptance of hydrogencold fusion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The author wishes to acknowledge Aris Chatzichristosfor the contribution in formulating this paper in English
References:
(1)www. journal-of-nuclear-physics.com /Focardi Rossi/ (A new energysource from nuclear fusion)
* I believe that the phasmatometric tracing of copper is the mostdefinitive sign of nuclear fusion: From the relative bibliography (HANDBOOK OFCHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS, 66TH edition), it follows that the stable nonradioactive isotopes of nickel are the following five:
58, 60, 61, 62 and 64. These, when fused with a hydrogennucleus, are being transmuted relatively to Cu-59, Cu-61, Cu-62, Cu-63and Cu-65.From these isotopes of copper only the last two (Cu-63 and Cu-65) arenot radioactive, i.e. they are stable. The other three Cu-59, Cu-61, Cu-62,are being transmuted again to Nickel, with an average life expectancy of somehours and the most unstable Cu-59 in 18 seconds.
By prof. Christos Stremmenos
